Florists and Flower Arranging in Ancient Egypt

The beauty of flowers fascinated ancient Egyptians, which was all the more emphasized by the sacred and symbolic qualities they believed flowers possessed. Sṯj-šʒ (literally ‘garden scent’), as they called them, were used for floral decorations and their fragrant blooms for crafting perfumed ointments. Exotic plants and trees were also appreciated and Ramses III, as told in Papyrus Harris, designed a ‘sacred way, splendid with flowers from all countries’. Flowers were common motif in art, but bouquets were also used as a decorative element by ancient Egyptian artists.

Flowers were always to be found in Egyptian homes. Sweet-smelling flowers in vases and flower bowls decorated their houses, and large lotus flowers were used for dining tables. Colorful spectacles of flowers were also enjoyed in the gardens.  Flowers were an important part of daily life, and  products of ancient Egyptian florists were indispensable during festive and religious occasions.

The emblems of Upper and Lower Egypt – lotus and papyrus – were the most important and most frequently represented in ancient Egyptian art. Men and women were frequently shown carrying lotus flower in their hands, often holding it to the nose to breathe in the ‘divine perfume’.

 

In the Old Kingdom, a single flower or simple bunches of blue and white lotus or papyrus stems were common in offering scenes. Papyrus stalks entwined with lotus flowers were also frequently depicted, as they symbolized the unification of the two parts of the country.

These simple floral offerings gave rise to much more elaborate formal bouquets during the New Kingdom, characterized by the great development of the floral wares. Nonetheless, lotus and papyrus kept their primary position as floral decorations, decorative elements, and symbolic plants.

 

Flowers in ancient Egyptian floral arrangements

The blue lotus (Nymphaea caerulea Savigny) was the most popular flower in ancient Egypt. When open, the flower has a strong scent and it is visually captivating both as a bud, and when fully blown or separated into lancet-shaped petals. At the first rays of  sun, the flower of the blue lotus opens up revealing its brilliant yellow calyx, surrounded by petals of beautiful gradients of blue, with a pleasing scent of the blossom matching its attractive appearance.

But come noon, the flower closes into a bud and sinks back into the water, only to repeat the process the next day. The lotus thus  became associated with the idea of creation and rebirth (one of the creation myths describes a newborn sun rising out of a lotus floating on the waters of Nun). Blue lotus also possesses hallucinogenic properties, what was probably another reason for its popularity among ancient Egyptians.

The white lotus (Nymphaea lotus), on the other hand, blooms during the night, eventually becoming the symbol of continuity and renewal of life, which was so essential to ancient Egyptians.  The blue and white lotus are actually two varieties of water lily, but they are universally called ‘lotus’ by Egyptologists, due to a confusion dating back to Herodotus’ time. The pink lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) was introduced from India probably after 525BC.

In ancient times, papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) grew in thickets with ample fauna along the Nile, and was a symbol of life and fertility, but also of resurrection of the deceased. Papyrus had multiple uses in ancient Egypt and its stalks were edible. Amulets in the shape of papyrus were also worn around the neck for protection and health.

Other flowers that were most frequently added to the bouquets and other floral decorations in the New Kingdom were cornflowers, poppies and mandrakes. Mandrake’s yellow fruits contrasted really well with the blue and red of the poppy and the cornflower, and they were frequently shown together in Egyptian garden.

Additionally, chrysanthemum, lily, iris, and delphinium might have also been included, although not all of them appear in artistic representations of garden scenes.

 

Flower arranging

As abovementioned, formal bouquets were rather rudimentary during the Old and the Middle Kingdoms, consisting of simple bunches of lotuses held in the hand of the bearer, and papyrus stems, either tied together or entwined with ‘enigmatic lily of the south’. This all changed during the New Kingdom, when a variety of flowers, grasses, leaves, and fruits began to be artfully arranged into wreaths, garlands, collars and bouquets of various shapes.

 

In addition to a flower or a bud adorning the unguent cone, lotus petals sewn together were worn as a decorative hair band.
Collars made with fresh flowers were frequently worn at banquets. Servants are usually represented tying these decorations onto the guests, while singers and dancers, as shown in tomb paintings, were similarly adorned. Guests were also encouraged to adorn their loved ones with garlands and lotus flowers.

Floral collars were made by sewing flowers, leaves, berries and beads onto a backing made of semicircular sheet of papyrus, while imperishable versions of these collars were made of faience pieces. Collars decorating sacred barks of the gods were wrought of precious materials. Wine jars provided with herbal stoppers would be also decorated with vine leaves and other flowers on festive occasions.

Manniche, among others, lists the instructions for making a floral garland. First, a string is made by twisting fibers of palm leaves (about 20 inches of the string on both sides are left free to tie the collar). Persea leaf would be then folded one third from its top and folded again one third further down, fastening the leaf over the string. The remaining third was folded once more to make a neat edge for the front of the collar.

Lotus petal was then inserted in the persea leaf, keeping about half of it visible, and stitched with date-palm fibers. Next persea leaf would follow, slightly overlapping the first, and so on, until the desired length of the garland was achieved. Another such garland could be also made and fastened to the first one, with the upper row slightly overlapping lower one.

 

Small bouquets were conveniently made to be hand-held so that one could enjoy their beauty and fragrance at a close distance. They are often shown being held by seated nobles, or were brought as gifts, laid on offering tables, or placed upright on a stand. In addition, they were presented by returning husbands to their wives, who were depicted waiting at the door to welcome them back home.

Small bouquets could be very simple, consisting of little more than the binding and two Nymphaea buds and a flower. A poppy flower or mandrake could be also added to a lotus flower in the middle. Some of these hand bouquets were nonetheless more elaborate as well, enlivened by tiers of petals on the bindings. A lettuce could be also added at one or each side of the bouquet.

Long papyrus stems with their flower umbels were used for the base of tall composite bouquets. The simplest forms consisted of one or more papyrus stalks,  which could be twined with a climbing plant, or lotus flowers were added to extend above the papyrus. The climbing plant was most commonly called ‘convolvulus’ and was depicted in different forms, with the leaves occasionally shown rounded rather than triangular. However, other species are more likely candidates according to Manniche, such as black bryony, smilax, birthwort, etc. 

Large composite bouquets were often as  tall as their bearers, presenting exquisite display of artful composition, and were certainly among the most remarkable accomplishments of ancient Egyptian florists. Making of the formal bouquets was thus much more elaborate and tedious.

The central part usually consisted of three papyrus stems, tied together to form a firm core (a bundle of rushes or palm branches could be also used instead). A selection of other flowers and fruits were then added to the core in tiers, one above the other, with smaller items filling the space between the larger ones, to ensure a compact form. These typically included lotus, poppy, cornflower and mandrake fruit.

Finally, a collar was made of red painted papyrus to fasten the flowers and conceal the bindings. A pattern of lotus petals was sometimes painted on the collars for a special effect, or real floral garlands were tied around the core. The long papyrus stalk could be entirely covered with flowers but also much of it could be left bare, in which case the bouquet would take on a less flowery effect. 

Ancient Egyptians also enjoyed constructing the bouquets in the shape of ankh, the sign which stands alike for ‘life’ and ‘bouquet’. They were usually made by shaping the core using a bundle of rush or straw, followed by inserting the flowers and covering the bindings with collars of papyrus.

Replete with religious symbolism, flowers and bouquets played a major part in the cult of gods. They were necessary offerings and were used in temple decorations. A clear emphasis on this type of offering can be found in the list of contributions of Rameses III to three major temples, with over one million offerings each year just at the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak. Clearly the king hoped that the gods will grant  protection and long reign in return for his marvelous flower offerings.

On occasion, a high priest would also present one of the bouquets from the altar of the gods to a worshipper, as shown in the tomb of Neferhotep, who by leaving the temple passed the bouquet of Amun to his wife Mereyet-Amun, who had waited for him outside the temple.

Florists

A passage of Papyrus Lansing, as translated by Blackmann, states that ‘the florist(?) makes bouquets’ and he also adorns wine jars with floral wreaths; ‘he spends a night of toil, like one on whose body the sun is shining’. These men clearly worked as hard during the cool nights as the ones working by day, in order to have flowers fresh and arranged for the next day.  Large quantities of flowers were offered to the gods and a well organized industry was necessary to provide them.

The men tasked with managing the supply of flowers during the reign of Amenophis III was Nakht – ‘bearer of divine offerings of Amun’ i.e. the chief florist of the temple. His tomb in Theban necropolis contains representations of some of the most imposing bouquets made in Egypt, but also illustrations of his daily duties inspecting flower beds and overseeing the gardeners’ laborious tasks. His sons apparently held similar titles as well – ‘gardeners’ and ‘bearers of divine offerings of Amun’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The ‘Overseer of the Garden of the Ramesseum’, Nedjemger is also similarly depicted, standing in his office in the garden.  The walls of his tomb, thoroughly decorated with flowers, also show him overseeing and inspecting the  manufacture of floral decorations.

In addition to their cultural and religious significance, flowers were clearly of substantial economic importance as well. Papyrus Harris I, refers to a large number of different types of bouquets in its list of offerings for the god Amun. The multiplicity of types cited indicates that the florist’s trade was well-developed at this time. However, information about trade in flowers in ancient Egypt is still very limited. 

Flowers for the afterlife

The practice of providing the dead with flowers in ancient Egypt goes back to the prehistoric times. Initially, these flower offerings were simple in nature, usually consisting of flowering branches of one plant species.
At the Predynastic site at el-Omari, floral remains consisted only of fragrant, yellow-flowering Pulicaria undulata from the daisy family, while a garland of long floral branches of Ceruana pratensis was found around the neck of an intact body at Hierakonpolis (HK43).

In Pharaonic times stems of papyrus, which symbolized resurrection, were essential part of the offering goods that the deceased took into the grave.  However, only few of these  stems survive, mainly from Amarna, Tanis and Deir el-Medina. A few additional stems from Passalacqua’s collection obtained from Thebes can be seen in Berlin Museum, and a few more of unknown provenance are kept in Turin Museum. 

Papyrus stalks with their flower umbels were also an important component of the composite bouquets that were brought to the tomb on the day of burial. These bouquets were placed beside the mummy at the entrance to the tomb for final rites. Bouquets were presented to the deceased not only on the day of the burial but also on any festive occasion celebrated in the necropolis (e.g. the Feast of the Valley).

The bouquets that were found in the tombs of Tutankhamun, Sennefer, Sennedjem, Kha and Amenhotep II differ entirely from the ones shown in representations, and other than papyrus stems that were found in some, most consisted of leafy branches of persea and olive tree, vine leaves, or the leafy stems of the melilot (Melilotus indica).

It is also interesting to note that date fruits were found in the bouquet from the tomb of Amenhotep II, and fruits were also found in one of the Mimusops branches in the bouquet from Ptolemaic grave in Gebelein. Bundles of persea and sycamore fig branches were found in one of the five foundation deposits at the entrance of Senenmut’s lower tomb (TT 353).

The largest group of bouquets  was found recently in the courtyard of TT 11 at Dra Abu el-Naga. Fifty bouquets were found in a small pit, together with probably intentionally broken  pottery vases, dating back to XX-XXI Dynasty. This deposit is probably related to a ritual shown in the tomb of the general Horemheb at Saqqara and other monuments, where mourners break vases next to flower-stands that were set up at the entrance of the tomb.

Ancient Egyptians decorated not only the mummies, but some of the accompanying statuettes in the tombs as well. A statue of Kha garlanded with flowers was found on a chair in front of the sarcophagus of Merit, while divine statuettes in the tomb of Tutankhamun were also decorated with floral wreaths.

Collars of real flowers found show that the method of assembly and the plant material used was very similar to the collars used at banquets. One example of such a collar was found in the ruins of a house at Tell el-Amarna. At least half a dozen of these collars, presumably worn by the guests at the banquet that took place at the burial of Tutankhamun were found, three of which have survived almost intact.

More recently a number of garlands and floral collars were found in a coffin from the tomb KV63, with some collars even having gold intertwined in them as the ones shown in tomb paintings. 

Mummy garlands were placed in concentric semicircles either on top of the coffin or on the mummy’s body, with lotus flowers being sometimes tucked in between the linen bandages as well. As described earlier, garlands were made in flat strips by folding green leaves over strips of a palm leaf and sewing them together using thin strips of palm leaf. Colorful petals or flowers on stems would then be inserted between the leaves.

Thirteen rows of floral garlands were placed on the mummy of Rameses II, for instance, and a number of single blue lotus flowers were stuck under the bands sealing the mummy wrappings. The garlands consisted of persea leaves and blue and white lotus petals, while the remains of narcissus bulbs were found on the mummy’s neck.  The garland found on the mummy of Ahmosi consisted of willow leaves, blue lotus and flowers of larkspur (Delphinium orientale).

Other flowers found in garlands, in addition to the ones used for the collars, include the indigenous Nile acacia, white acacia, sesban, hairy willow herb, hollyhock, safflower and flowers of henna bush. Mummy garlands can also consist of just green leaves, if those were fragrant enough of their own, such as mint, wild celery, or dill.

 

 

The intention behind such adornments for mummies and coffins seems to have been related with life-giving symbolism of flowers, alluding to rebirth.  In addition, late Books of Going Forth by Day show the round floral wreath as a symbol of successful passing of the Tribunal of the Dead before Osiris.

In Greco-Roman times floral decorations changed due to foreign influences, and new plants being available, such as rose, pink lotus, immortelle, lychnis, jasmine, and marjoram. Pliny wrote that ‘In Egypt, they make chaplets of heliochrysis flowers wherewith they crown the statues of the gods, a custom which is most faithfully observed by Ptolemy the King of Egypt’.

Flowers in art             

The love of flowers and plants was very characteristic of Egyptian people and it is not surprising that these motifs found their way to ancient Egyptian art.

Looking at ancient Egyptian architecture for instance, it can be noticed that flowers are omnipresent. Columns were carved and painted in forms derived from plant motifs (papyrus, lotus, palm, or ‘composite’).

Bouquets being offered to the gods were frequently shown on monuments, and flowers were also used in decoration of the houses. Flowers were also ubiquitous in the wall decoration of tombs.

Floral friezes often decorated the top of tomb walls. There is a number of different types of floral friezes, some of them being partially based on the garlands made by the florists, incorporating flowers, fruits, series of petals, etc. 

A pattern similar to floral frieze could  also appear on a ceiling, as for example in the tomb of Nespeneferhor (TT68). Bouquets were also used as architectural decoration though the small bouquets are rare (they appear in the Amarna palace and in the tomb of Panehsy for instance).

Flowers and bouquets were also used as decorative elements in everyday objects and furniture. The chest of Tutankhamun is richly decorated with flowers, and  a scene carved on the lid of the chest depicts the queen presenting the king with two bouquets. An unusual representation appears at the front of the carved wooden panel that forms the back of the chair found in the tomb of Yuya and Thuya. Their daughter, queen Tiye is shown with two princesses on a papyrus boat, the ends of which are shaped as elaborate bouquets.

Floral garlands were frequently painted on the jugs and such ornamentation seems to had been derived from the practice of hanging real flower garlands on the vessels at feasts. Some of the vessels from Amarna had been also decorated with painted bouquets.

 

 

The ointment spoons were frequently fashioned in the shape of the bouquets. The bouquet could also form the handle of a mirror, while the mirror case of princess Henutawy has been also decorated with painted bouquets.

Several exhibitions were dedicated to flowers in ancient Egypt, such as the Flower Kingdom in Antikenmuseum Basel, where marvelous reconstructions of floral garlands that once adorned mummies were shown along with other ancient Egyptian artifacts related to flowers, plants and fruits, including a faithful replica of the tomb of Sennedjem, richly decorated with plants. That the Egyptians loved their gardens and colorful flowers could be also seen at the exhibition ‘Ägyptische Gärten‘ at the Roman-Germanic Museum in Cologne, where reconstructions of floral collars from Tutankhamun’s funerary banquet were also shown.

Plutarch, citing Theophrastus, wrote of the charm of ancient Egyptian garlands which, during one of his visits to Egypt, so much captivated Agesilaus, the king of Sparta, that he had to take some home with him.

Keimer notes that bouquets similar to ancient Egyptian ones were sold on the streets of Tunis and Sas in early 20^th century and worn by men tucked into their turbans. Whether this was a case of survival of ancient Egyptian bouquets for thousands of years or just a similarity is nonetheless striking and worth mentioning.

Bibliography

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